Tag: mental-health

What is the evidence that supports the idea that measures of individual differences can predict human behaviour?

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This discussion will critically examine the evidence of the predictive power of individual differences to predict behaviours. 

To begin with, research has shown consistently that personality traits, particularly those from the Five-Factor Model (e.g., conscientiousness, neuroticism), are useful in predicting behaviour. For example, conscientiousness is linked to job performance, academic success, and better care of overall health, while neuroticism is associated with negative mental health outcomes (Maltby et al., 2023). Moreover, trait theorists claim that finding out the source traits of a person by testing to which extent a person possesses surface traits, will allow them to predict an individual’s behaviour. They view traits as stable characteristics, which allows future behaviour prediction (Cervone & Pervin, 2013). 

The major critique of using personality traits to predict behaviour is the context dependency of behaviour. For example, Geukes et al. (2017) show that personality traits can predict behaviour to some extent, but it has limitations due to significant variability depending on the context. Similarly, Lievens et al. (2018) highlight the importance of recognising substantial intraindividual variability in behaviour across different situations and for the most accurate result, both between and within-person trait variability should be measured. 

However, individual differences observed in behaviour are not merely psychological constructs but have a physiological basis. For instance, neuroimaging studies indicate that structural differences in the brain are linked to behavioural and cognitive abilities differences. Particularly, MRI studies showed that inter-individual variability in cognitive functions like memory, motor control, perception, and ability to introspect can be predicted from the structure of grey and white matter. Researchers stated that the differences in strengths of white matter tract connectivity allow higher or lower speed of information transfer across the brain’s regions, which can be linked with inter-individual differences in human behaviour. This has been studied using the Diffusion Tensor Imaging technique. Moreover, after conducting experiments, researchers stated that inter-individual variability in the ability to correct and quickly choose the response during visual stimulus tests correlates with the grey matter density of the pre-supplementary motor area. (Kanai & Rees, 2011).

On the other hand, critics argue that the relationship between brain structure and behaviour is more complex due to non-linear and multifunctional brain structure. One of the examples is the brain’s plasticity ability, which lets behavioural differences shape and reshape brain structure, at the same time brain structure can also influence behaviour (Pessoa, 2014).

In conclusion, the evidence suggests that individual differences, such as personality traits and brain structure, play a significant role in predicting behaviour. For example, the Five-Factor Model has been shown to accurately predict future important life outcomes such as job performance, and overall health. Additionally, neuroimaging studies provided a physiological basis, linking structural brain differences to behavioural and cognitive abilities variations.

However, the complexity of the non-linear nature of the brain and context dependency highlights the importance of developing an approach which will incorporate both psychological and physiological factors, when measuring individual differences. 

Reference List

Cervone D. & Pervin L. A. (2013). Personality: theory and research (Twelfth). Wiley.

Geukes, K., Nestler, S., Hutteman, R., Küfner, A., & Back, M. (2017). Trait personality and state variability: Predicting individual differences in within- and cross-context fluctuations in affect, self-evaluations, and behavior in everyday life. Journal of Research in Personality, 69, 124-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JRP.2016.06.003.

Kanai, R., Rees, G. (2011). The structural basis of inter-individual differences in human behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 12, 231–242 (2011). https://shorturl.at/UsEKc

Lievens, F., Lang, J., Fruyt, F., Corstjens, J., Vijver, M., & Bledow, R. (2018). The Predictive Power of People’s Intraindividual Variability Across Situations: Implementing Whole Trait Theory in Assessment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103, 753–771. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000280.

Maltby, J., Day, L., & Macaskill, A. (2023). Personality, Individual Differences (5th ed.). Pearson International Content. https://essexonline.vitalsource.com/books/9781292726960

Pessoa, L. (2014). Understanding brain networks and brain organization. Physics of Life Reviews, 11(3), 400-435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plrev.2014.03.005

The use of Critical thinking skills in developing political campaigns. 

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In modern days political campaigns are not done over TV or in a door-to-door manner, as they used to be. Nowadays the most successful campaigns utilise online targeting commercials, which are carefully tailored according to the psychological types of voters. The tactics they use to spread the message and to obtain sensitive information could be called controversial.

This thesis aims to examine which critical thinking skills, if any, are used by the campaign agencies, whether their targeted message adheres to the Gricean Cooperative Principle, and to what extent it’s relevant to the application of critical thinking. 

Firstly, if to look at the example of such targeting messages as mentioned in the article (aimClear, 2015), it could be deducted that those messages adhere to the Gricean Maxim of Quantity because they provide just the amount of information necessary to influence the voter, tailored to their specific demographic or psychographic profile. On the other hand, it violates the same principle by withholding critical information that could provide a more balanced or comprehensive understanding of the issues (Levinson, 1983).

Secondly, if the information provided in the campaigns is accurate and evidence-based then it adheres to the Maxim of Quality. Nonetheless, if the information is skewed in the favour of one political candidate, biased, or has exaggerated statements then it violates the Maxim of Quality, as it fails to meet the standard of truthfulness (Brown & Levinson, 1987). 

Thirdly, a typical targeted message is tailored to the particular audience by using psychographics, thus making it adhere to the Maxim of Relation (Sperber & Wilson, 1986). However, such a tailored approach may omit information relevant to the broader societal context, which may not align with the wider public interest (Cap, 2010).

Lastly, according to Grice, (1975), the message should adhere to the principle of Manner – avoid obscurity and ambiguity; be orderly and clear. Which is aligned with targeted messages as they tend to be clear and direct. Nevertheless, the violation could occur if the information is purposefully simplified to manipulate the issue’s complexity (Levinson, 1983).

Critical thinking skills can be utilised by political campaigns in many ways. For example: to analyse language and to avoid fallacies such as guilt by association and ensure that their messaging is both persuasive and ethically sound (Halpern, 2023); to seek out contradictory evidence and develop more robust, defensible campaign strategies (Halpern, 1998); to conduct thorough risk-benefit analyses and minimising potential downsides (Butler, 2012). These are just several examples, critical thinking skills are beneficial for successfully conveying the information. 

Research shows that critical thinking skills can be effectively taught and learned. For example, Marin and Halpern (2011) found that explicit instruction in essential skills of thinking led to significant gains in students’ ability to analyse arguments, recognise reasons, and resist persuasive appeals. Similar results were achieved by Forsyth et al. (2013) by using computerised learning games to teach students critical thinking skills related to research methodology. 

Political advertising agencies can learn and apply these skills through workshops, scenario-based learning, reflection and feedback, and cross-disciplinary collaborations (e.g., between data analysts and creative teams). 

Gricean cooperative communication is relevant to political advertising agencies to the extent that it guides the ethical and effective exchange of information. Critical thinking aids agencies in adhering to Grice’s maxims, ensuring clarity, relevance, and truthfulness in messaging. However, agencies can deviate from these principles to persuade or manipulate voters. 

In conclusion, the thesis highlights a tension between cooperative communication and political campaigns’ competitive, outcome-driven nature. Thus, while Gricean principles are foundational, they are selectively applied in the context of political strategy.

Reference list

AimClear. (2015, November). aimClear’s psychographic targeting for political advertising agencies’ wins. Search Engine Land. https://searchengineland.com/aimclears-psychographic-targeting-for-political-advertising-agencies-wins-237290

Butler, H.A. (2012), Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment Predicts Real-World Outcomes of Critical Thinking. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26, 721-729. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.2851

Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge University Press. https://shorturl.at/hikGH

Cap, P. (2010). Legitimisation in Political Discourse: A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective on the Modern US War Rhetoric. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. https://shorturl.at/48Svb 

Forsyth, C. M., Graesser, A. C., Walker, B., Millis K. Pavlik, P., & Halpern, D. F. (2013). Didactic galactic: Acquiring knowledge learned in a serious game. In H. C. Lane, K. Yacef, J. Mostow, & P. Pavlik (Eds.). Proceedings of the International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education: 16th International Conference (AIED 2013) (pp. 832–835). Berlin; Heidelberg: Springer Verlag.

Grice, H. P. (1975). ‘Logic and conversation’. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Studies in Syntax and Semantics III: Speech Acts, New York: Academic Press, pp. 183-98.

Halpern, D. F. (1998). Teaching critical thinking for transfer across domains: Disposition, skills, structure training, and metacognitive monitoring. American Psychologist, 53(4), 449–455. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.53.4.449

Halpern, D. F., & Dunn, D.S. (2023). Chapter 1: Critical Thinking. An Introduction. In Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking (6th ed.). New York, NY, US: Psychology Press. 

Levinson, S. C. (1983). Pragmatics. Cambridge University Press. https://shorturl.at/gd1lH

Marin, L. M., & Halpern, D. F. (2011). Pedagogy for developing critical thinking in adolescents: Explicit instruction produces greatest gains. Learning and Instruction, 21(2), 143-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2010.08.002

Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. (1986). Relevance: Communication and Cognition. Harvard University Press. https://shorturl.at/2Ikdd