Category: Biology

Three “Eras” of Mental Processes Study: Evolution Through Biological Insights. 

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How the biological study of mental processes has contributed to the development of psychology as a discipline? To better answer the question, this essay will illustrate how the study of mental processes has evolved through three significant phases: before Biological studies, this “era” focuses on the early philosophical and introspective approaches; the Stimulus-reaction period, which is the “era” of behaviourism and early neurophysiological models, which characterised the brain as a stimulus-response machine; Predictive Processing, the current “era”, which provides a more integrated and dynamic understanding of mental processes as proactive, prediction-based processes.

Brain’s function and structure across time.

Before going into a detailed exploration of the study of mental processes across the history of psychology, it’s important to look at the evolution of understanding brain functions and structures across the mentioned periods; to see the profound changes in the conceptualisation of the brain in psychology and neuroscience.

Before Biological contribution: In the beginning mind and body were mostly studied by philosophers. The understanding of the brain function and structure, of that time, was rudimentary and relayed on philosophical speculations. The anatomical knowledge was as well limited and the brain’s importance was overlooked. Aristotle for instance thought that the heart has a more crucial role and is the primary organ of sensation (Aristotle, 350 BCE). Another example of when the brain’s fun actions were viewed through metaphysical concepts, is the Humoral theory, which suggests that bodily fluids influenced behaviour and temperament (Hippocrates, 400 BCE). Later in the 17th century, Descartes proposed a new theory “Mind-Body Dualism”, where he distinctly separates the nature of the mind and the nature of the body, arguing that one can exist without another. Although he assigns a function of consciousness and reason to the brain.

Stimulus-Reaction Era: shaped by the rise of behaviourism and early neuroscience, the understanding of the brain shifted towards more empirical and anatomical forms. Which led to a clearer understanding of the brain’s structure and functions. One of the most significant findings was Broca’s discovery of the speech production centre in the brain, known as Broca’s area, which linked specific brain areas to cognitive function (Broca, 1861). This was the beginning of a new field- neurophysiology. Later Wernickle (1874) developed even further the brain-behaviour relationship, by identifying the brain’s area responsible for language comprehension. During the same period, the brain’s function was understood as a stimulus-response mechanism, (where specific inputs led to certain outputs.) This era was dominated by the behaviourists’ perspective that all behaviours could be understood as reflexes conditioned by environmental stimuli (Watson, 1913; Pavlov 1927).

The predictive processing era views the brain as an active participant that doesn’t just passively respond to the external world but proactively simulates and predicts the environment. The distinction of understanding brain structure in this era is neuroimaging technologies such as fMRI and PET scans which allowed to examine hierarchical organisation of the brain, showing how different layers of neural circuits predict sensory inputs at various levels of abstraction (Friston, 2005). The brain’s function is understood as a continuous prediction process, to minimise the error between its predictions and sensory inputs and by adjusting its predictions, shapes cognitive functions. As well as, construct and maintain perceptual reality (Clark, 2013). Unlike earlier theories which often separated mind and body, the modern approach emphasises the inseparability of cognitive processes from their biological bases, aligning psychology more closely with biological science.

This section compares how mental processes were understood and studied across different eras, examining each historical period through various psychological fields.

Perception and Cognition.

First era: In the evolution of psychological theories, early introspective methods by Descartes (1637) and Locke (1690) gave subjective insights but lacked empirical accuracy. Associationism was introduced by Hume (1739) and experimental approaches by Ebbinghaus (1913) began to systematise the study of memory and learning, by observing how subjects recall and connect ideas. The biggest flaw of these methods was introspection’s subjectivity. Wundt challenged that drawback by stressing the importance of the use of experimental methods to increase precision (Wundt, 1910). Developing on the idea Titchener, (1896) founded structuralism but was criticized for missing psychological holistic aspects. Later, Wertheimer, (1923) developed Gestalt psychology and switched the focus onto the observable behaviours and perception of the whole, which showed more objective insight into cognitive processes. During the Stimulus-Reaction era, behaviourism was a dominant theory during which the emphasis was on observable behaviours. In comparison to the previous era, this era is characterised by a more objective framework, including controlled laboratory settings as the main setting for behavioural analysis. Main methods such as Pavlov’s (1927) classical conditioning and Skinner’s (1938) operant conditioning defined brain function as a direct stimulus-response mechanism. However, a strong focus solely on the behaviour part was criticised for neglecting the brain’s complex cognitive and neurological underpinnings. Later Lashley’s (1929) lesion studies and Thompson’s (1986) investigations into neural plasticity challenged this limitation. They have expanded the understanding of the brain’s role and revealed complex synaptic changes and neural pathways, which are critical in learning and memory processes.

Despite the main focus of this era being on observable behaviour, it sets the groundwork for the cognitive-behaviour revolution. Clinicians started to recognise that to change or understand behaviours they need to take into consideration cognitive processes which co-occur with behaviours. This realisation led to the foundation of cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) (Beck, 1976).

Predictive Processing Era: This era has transformed the understanding of perception and cognition. For instance, Karl Friston (2005) and his influential research “The Free Energy Principle” showed how the brain simultaneously reduces surprises making predictions based on internal models and updating them using sensory input, thus giving the brain an active role in the perception processes. Additionally, his development of dynamic causal modelling shows the transition from previous approaches to connectivity, by using an explicit generative model which measures brain responses in their non-linear causal architecture (Friston et al., 2003). Moreover, he brought sophisticated statistical tools to neuroscience, enabling a detailed examination of how the brain minimises prediction errors. It could require more careful and resourceful interpretation to avoid misrepresenting complex brain functions. Nonetheless, he fundamentally challenged traditional stimulus-response models. (Friston, 2009). Studies like those by Rauss and Pourtois (2013) utilize fMRI and EEG to observe how top-down predictions influence sensory processing, showcasing the application of predictive models in real-time brain activity analysis. Andy Clark’s integration of Bayesian inference into psychological theory (Clark, 2013) offers a robust framework for understanding perception as an active, inference-driven process, in comparison to the past passive role in linear perception systems. While these methodologies provide profound insights into the brain’s predictive mechanisms, they also demand high computational resources and sophisticated data analysis skills, which can be a barrier to broader application. Additionally, the reliance on statistical modelling to infer neural processes requires assumptions that may oversimplify the underlying biological realities.

Clinical psychology.

First era: The Dominating theory of this period was Freudian psychoanalysis, which emphasised internal conflicts, childhood experiences, and the unconscious mind as determinants of psychopathology (Freud, 1923). Freud introduced talk therapy and psychoanalytical techniques in clinical settings (Freud, 1900). The methodology of that time included mostly theoretical and qualitative case studies, which lacked empirical factors and were hard to generalise.

Stimulus-reaction era: One of the main shifts was the application of behaviourist principles in clinical settings. For example, Wolpe (1958) developed a systematic desensitisation method, using classical conditioning to treat anxiety disorders. By his method, participants would practice relaxation techniques while being gradually exposed to fear- inducing stimuli. The method aims to recondition the patient’s response. Another notable example of the development of behaviour modification therapies is: that techniques such as token economies and contingency management were used in various settings, including hospitals and schools, to modify behaviours by manipulating reinforcements and punishments (Ayllon & Azrin, 1968).

This era also is signified by research on brain lesions, which provided a deeper understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying behaviour. For instance, studies by Milner et al., (1968) on patient H.M. demonstrated the role of the medial temporal lobe in memory formation, which changed clinical approaches to amnesia and other cognitive deficits. Additionally, studies on animals with induced lesions revealed critical brain areas involved in emotional responses, such as the amygdala and prefrontal cortex (Murray et al., 2022).

Another crucial contribution to clinical psychology was the discovery of neurotransmitters and their roles in mood and behaviour. For example, the identification of serotonin’s role in depression led to the development of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), revolutionizing the treatment of mood disorders (Wong et al., 2005). This biological perspective integrated pharmacological treatments with behavioural therapies, offering a more holistic approach to mental health.

Predictive Processing Era: This era significantly expanded the current understanding of various psychological disorders and their manifestation in the brain structure and function. One notable example is how Predictive Processing theories can explain the mechanisms behind delusions and hallucinations in schizophrenia. According to this, the symptoms appear due to impaired prediction error signalling within the brain, leading to an inability to distinguish between internally generated and external stimuli (Corlett et al. 2007). This has led to new approaches in psychosocial interventions that focus on enhancing the brain’s ability to form accurate predictions.

Another key contribution is in the treatment of Depression and Anxiety. Ramos-Grille et al. (2021) demonstrate a new outlook on the understanding of mood disorders. By using the Predictive Processing framework, he was able to examine in patients with depression how maladaptive predictive models could lead to persistent negative biases. Moreover, to correct cognitive distortions, he reinterpreted cognitive-behavioural treatment strategies as methods for updating those distorted brain predictions.

A similar approach was suggested for OCD interventions. Studies by Voon and colleagues (2015) in that area have shown that repetitive behaviours in OCD may stem from an over-reliance on prediction error minimisation strategies that inaccurately signal a need for corrective action. This approach makes it possible to recalibrate the brain’s predictive models to reduce compulsive behaviours.

Another groundbreaking discovery in clinical settings using the Predictive Processing model was explaining the perceptual peculiarities, such as hypersensitivities and attention to detail in Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Pellicano and Burr’s (2012) research has shown that overwhelming sensory experiences in ASD are the result of the atypical predictive processes where sensory input is under-predicted. This led to the development of a therapeutic approach which modulates sensory prediction mechanisms. The integration of Predictive Processing into clinical psychology further developed neuroimaging tools to assess how therapy influences brain predictions. Such techniques as real-time fMRI and EEG neuro-feedback help clinicians to observe how therapeutic interventions influence brain activity patterns, and to choose more effective treatment (Zotev et al., 2014; Perronnet et al., 2017). These techniques not only help with a better understanding of undergoing processes of the brain predictions but also integrate advanced theories into everyday clinical practice.

Conclusion.

The biological study of mental processes had a great impact on the development and structuring of the field of psychology. It significantly changed the understanding of the brain-behaviour relationship and provided a robust empirical foundation. During the pre-biological era, psychological theories were mostly speculative and philosophical. Moreover, the scientists of that time were relying on introspective methods that lacked empirical foundation. This changed significantly during biological study development at the beginning of the stimulus-reaction era. Pioneering work by researchers like Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner introduced systematic experimental methods to study behaviour, while neurophysiological discoveries by scientists such as Paul Broca and Karl Wernicke linked specific brain areas to cognitive functions, thus laying the groundwork for neuropsychology. Neuropsychology’s rapid development started with the predictive processing era. During this scientists further developed the understanding of mental processes. According to a new model the brain doesn’t have a passive role anymore as it was viewed in previous eras, it has an active role in predicting and interpreting sensory inputs and at the same time maintaining a complex framework of reality. One of the biggest contributions in the field was Karl Friston’s Free Energy Principle and advancements in neuroimaging technologies, such as fMRI and EEG, revolutionised an outlook on the brain’s hierarchical organisation and its predictive mechanisms. What is more, this era has also seen significant developments in clinical psychology, where predictive models have been applied to understand and treat various mental disorders. Indeed, the gap between theoretical models and clinical practice has been minimised by implementing real-time neuroimaging techniques in clinical settings. This allowed clinicians to be more accurate in assessing various disorders like schizophrenia, depression, OCD, and ASD. As well as it helped to tailor therapeutic interventions to the individual neurological needs of patients.

In conclusion, modern psychology has come a long way from speculative science to science grounded in empirical research. It would not be possible without biological study. This assay shows how intertwined the two fields are. The development of biological research has deepened the understanding of the connection between the human brain, its functions, structure, emotions, behaviours and reactions. Another important aspect is the significant development in the efficiency of therapeutic interventions and methodology. This highlights the inseparable nature of psychology and neuroscience. The future advancement in biological psychology will enrich the field and improve mental health care practices even more.

Reference List

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Friston, K. (2009). The free-energy principle: A rough guide to the brain? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(7), 293-301. https://shorturl.at/fdWMN 

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Case study: General Anxiety Disorder, Adlerian Approach.

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Case
Patient Sarah, 28 years old, is a female, from a midwestern town in the US. She’s had anxiety since childhood, but lately it’s became more severe. She had tried therapy and medication before but they hadn’t helped. Now she finds it hard to leave the house, constantly preoccupied with imagining negative possible scenarios.
She mentioned that her childhood was relatively happy, and support and attention from family could be used to decrease vulnerability.

Symptoms and diagnosis

The patient has trouble sleeping, a racing heart, is constantly on edge, avoids social situations, has difficulty leaving the house, has worrying thoughts, started to have panic attacks. Has a history of anxiety-related problems in childhood. As a child, she would worry about small things such as meeting new friends or getting a bad grade.
Based on the stated symptoms and the client’s background it is logical to assume that the client suffers from an anxiety disorder, particularly from a general anxiety disorder. Although some of the symptoms correlate with other types, for example, panic attacks are not in the symptoms’ list in DSM-5 for general anxiety disorder, but for panic attacks disorder, and social avoidance could be found as a symptom of social anxiety disorder. Nevertheless, when distinguishing GAD from other types it’s important to take into account the nature of the client’s worries and in which areas of life it manifests. For instance, social anxiety is centred around feeling shame or being judged by people around (Liebowitz, 2010). But in this case, in social situations, patient worries come not from fear of being judged by people, but from being overwhelmed by the activity itself. Panic attacks, similarly, had manifested as a symptom of chronic GAD and had appeared later in life. Also, the patient frequently shows most of the symptoms required to be diagnosed with GAD: excessive worries on various topics which are hard to control, problems with sleep, worries negatively affecting a person’s life and restricting them from living life to its fullest (DSM-5-TR). Additionally, the patient had a history of anxious behaviour from early childhood. That’s why the exact diagnosis would be GAD. In that scenario, trouble with leaving the house or avoidance of social situations could be the client’s safety behaviours as a coping mechanism to avoid potential stress (Robichaud, et al., 2019).

Explanation of Anxiety through biopsychosocial model and Adlerian theory

When it comes to anxiety treatment, CBT therapy is the most popular type. CBT focuses on dealing with symptoms, changing maladaptive thought patterns, and teaching coping and stress relief technics (Newman & Fisher 2010). However, in this paper, I would like to review the Adlerian approach.

One way of understanding anxiety disorder is by using the biopsychosocial model of well- being. BPSM is client-centred and it takes into account the biological, psychological and social aspects of the individual. Such an approach coincides with the Adlerian main idea of viewing a patient as a whole. BPMS recognises 3 sources of anxiety.

The first is biological, a person could have a genetic predisposition towards heightened emotional reactivity (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Newman et al., 2013). Moreover, due to the neuroplasticity of the brain, a traumatic event in childhood could alter brain structure. Early life exposure to stress factor could influence the healthy function of prefrontal–hippocampal–amygdala circuits, which takes part in emotional processing, learning and self-regulation (Smith & Pollak, 2020). This correlates with Adlerian theory, that a child’s yet not developed fully brain connections, under the effect of stress could develop unhealthy neural connections and thinking patterns, thus could lead to developing anxiety (Adler, 1927).

In the chosen case the patient shows symptoms of developing anxiety in early childhood. Genetic factors paired with some stressful social situations could lead a patient to lose confidence in herself when meeting new children and create anxiety over the social aspect of life. Which manifested in her adult life as avoidant behaviour. As a result, the patient could have a decrease in oxytocin level, which is used in processes of social bonding, managing stress, and regulation of neural and behavioural responses to stressful situations (Poulin & Holman, 2013). To confirm the hypothesis the patient should test for related hormones and get a brain scan. Using the Adlerian approach, it is necessary to educate the patient on the biological aspect of GAD, in order to use it as a motivational factor to work on rewiring the brain, which is possible due to plasticity. This could give purpose to the patient to change behaviour and alleviate the stress factor of being “sick” by normalizing their experience.

Two others sources of anxiety by BPMS are Psycho-social factors.
It is important to look at environmental conditions and social aspects. Family plays a key role in a child’s development. Through interactions within the family, the child adapts social- behavioural schemas, feeling of belonging which later shapes the ability to feel related to peers, how they view others and the world (Curlette & Kern, 2010). Applying this to a given case, good relationships with family could be used as a tool to help the patient in dealing with stress. Family can provide emotional support. At the same time relationships between family members and childhood experiences needed to be examined further throughout the therapy in order to identify particular factors which could lead the patient to develop anxiety in childhood. The therapy plan will be viewed in the next section.
Another key factor is the social/cultural aspect, for example, in this case, it would be helpful to share the statistic, that in the US GAD is more common among White women (8,6%). This knowledge can help the patient to feel less alone and isolated (Alur-Gupta et al., 2021).

Therapeutic plan

In short, Adlerian therapy is a holistic method, where a client is viewed as a whole. The process is client-centred, actively engaging the client in reviewing thought and behaviour patterns and working on it towards progress with encouragement from the therapist (Adler, 1927).

Phases are: establishing trustful relationships with the patient, gathering information about the patient, processing and interpreting the collected data and guiding the client towards behaviour changes (Ansbacher, 1974).
For the first phase sessions should be scheduled to talk in depth about the client’s life, tasks, problems the client faces every day, social-development history, the client’s take on her mental state before and now, personal feelings and all thoughts about the situation as well as medical history. Based on newly collected information together with the patient a plan of treatment will be constructed, where we will explore and collaboratively work on false thought and behaviour patterns. In therapy, we will put focus on unfolding the client’s perception of social and environmental belonging. Additionally, we will work on developing mutual respect in the client-therapist relationship which will help the client to gain self- confidence and find motivation from within. Next, we will identify the patient’s goals and reveal the purpose of the patient’s behaviour. Also, we will identify the strong sides of the client and empathise with them, as well as pinpoint aspects of life where the client feels uneasy and stressed and address them. (Feltham et al., 2017). Throughout the whole process, the client will be encouraged and praised to help the client feel in control over the situation and to develop the ability to help herself (Jokinen & Hartshorne, 2022). Moreover, through therapy, the client will learn to accept failure, and the uncertainty of life, accept her condition and work on re-joining areas of life that were disconnected. Another interesting tool which can be used with the client is music. The client can interpret the lyrics of music chosen for the session, use music as a relaxation method, play music from childhood to recall memories and feelings, find a specific song which represents her emotional state now and then analyse it together. (Kluetz, 2015). After gathering enough data and pinpointing goals and life challenges, together with the client an assignment which challenges the client’s old thought and behaviour patterns will be set up and the patient will try to act out new behaviours and views on life (Carlson, et al., 2006a).
When developing a client-therapist relationship it is also important to take into account professional and ethical considerations. According to the American Counselling Association (2014) and the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (2018), fundamental principles of ethical work are autonomy of the client’s free will, beneficent and non- maleficent intentions to helping the client without harming, maintaining the sense of fidelity to honour professional commitments, providing therapy with justice and equality for all patients, practicing veracity, and maintaining a sense of self-respect. These principles are crucial in building healthy relationships with a client in order not to overstep personal or client boundaries and not to develop unhealthy relationships. Developing a healthy relationship is beneficial in the Adlerian framework because it is one of the motivational and educational points for a client (Adler, 1927). Linking this to the chosen case, a healthy client/therapist relationship will encourage the patient to develop a social interest in a provided safe and accepting environment. This will help the client to work on the social aspect of the issue and allow them to make their own decisions, which are respected and encouraged. Later with more developed self-confidence a client will be able to transfer this experience into real life social interactions and continue developing social interest, which was modelled by the therapist (Millar, 2017).

Evaluation of Adlerian therapy

It is hard to find a meta-analysis on the effectiveness of the Adlerian approach due to the psychoanalytical nature of the therapy. Nevertheless, there are numerous research papers and case studies on that topic. For example, several studies on developing healthy mental states in adolescents in order to help them fight psychological problems and anger-infused behaviour by applying Adlerian therapy showed positive results and efficacy of the approach (Badejo and Bola, 2020; Boxer, et al., 2005). Another research by Keshavarzi et al., (2016) showed a significant increase in emotional regulation abilities.
However, there is plenty of indirect evidence of the effectiveness of Adlerian therapy. One notable example is a series of research by Prochaska & Norcross (2010) where they asked a panel of 62 psychologists to give their opinion on what the ideal approach to therapy should look like. In their conclusion, they described an approach which includes biological, psychosocial aspects, client-centred, psychoeducational, directive and future/present-oriented approaches. This coincides with Adlerian principles and is based on the same main ideas.
No doubt that the Adlerian approach is worth considering when choosing a therapy. Additionally, there are many case-based types of research and other indirect evidence of the efficacy of Adlerian methods. For instance, the Adlerian approach allows incorporating multicultural, cognitive, and systematic counselling perspectives (Watts, 2013). Additionally, it shares the same key factors of successful psychotherapy with transtheoretical studies (Carlson, et al., 2006a).
That evidence should be taken into account even though in the current climate there is a lack of meta-analyses and efficacy studies. With more attention to that problem, it might move specialists in the field to continue research and provide much-needed data.

References

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Alur-Gupta, S., Lee, I., Chemerinski, A., Liu, C., Lipson, J., Allison, K., Gallop, R., & Dokras, A. (2021). Racial differences in anxiety, depression, and quality of life in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. F&S reports, 2(2), 230–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xfre.2021.03.003

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Carlson, J., Watts, R. E., & Maniacci, M. (2006a). Adlerian therapy: Theory and practice. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://awspntest.apa.org/doi/10.1037/11363-000

Carlson, J., Watts, R., Maniacci, M. (2006b). Adlerian Therapy and the Transtheoretical (Common) Factors (excerpted from Adlerian Therapy: Theory and Practice, APA 2006).https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335587157_Adlerian_Therapy_and_the_Tra nstheoretical_Common_Factors_excerpted_from_Adlerian_Therapy_Theory_and_Pra ctice_APA_2006

Curlette, W., L., & Kern, R., M. (2010). The importance of meeting the need to belong in lifestyle. Journal of Individual Psychology, 66(1), 30–42. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12259/50224

Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5-TR (5th edition, text revision.). (2022). American Psychiatric Association Publishing. https://doi- org.uniessexlib.idm.oclc.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787

Feltham, C., Hanley, T., Hanley, T., & Winter, L., A. (Eds.). (2017). Part V: Theory and Approaches. In The SAGE handbook of counselling and psychotherapy. Sage.

Jokinen, R., R., & Hartshorne, T., S. (2022). Anxiety Disorders: A Biopsychosocial Model and an Adlerian Approach for Conceptualization and Treatment. The Journal of Individual Psychology 78(2), 155-174. doi:10.1353/jip.2022.0022.

Keshavarzi, S., Azar, E., F., Mirnasab, M., M., Gargan, R., B. (2016). Effects of Transactional Analysis Programs on Adolescents’ Emotion Regulation. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 4(8), 51-59. DOI:10.5539/ijps.v8n4p51

Kluetz, S. L. (2015). Adlerian approach to anxiety reduction using music as a therapeutic tool. Adler Graduate School of Minnesota. https://alfred adler.edu/sites/default/files/Kluetz%20MP%202015.pdf

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